İstanbul'da tarihi yarımadadaki ahşap iskelet strüktürlü geleneksel konutların yapısal özelliklerine göre deprem performansının değerlendirilmesi

Evaluation of earthquake performance based on the structural characteristics of timber-framed traditional houses in the historical peninsula of İstanbul

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Tez No: 975295
Yazar: ABDÜLLATİF SARIKAYA
Danışmanlar: DOÇ. DR. CANER GÖÇER
Tez Türü: Yüksek Lisans
Konular: Mimarlık, Architecture
Anahtar Kelimeler: Ahşap iskeletli yapılar, Deprem performansı, Tarihi yarımada, Timber skeleton constructions, Earthquake performance, Historical peninsula
Yıl: 2025
Dil: Türkçe
Üniversite: İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi
Enstitü: Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü
Ana Bilim Dalı: Mimarlık Ana Bilim Dalı
Bilim Dalı: Çevre Kontrolü ve Yapı Teknoloji Bilim Dalı
Sayfa Sayısı: Belirtilmemiş.

Özet

Ahşap yapı malzemesi olarak tarih boyunca esneklik, hafiflik, yenilenebilirlik ve çevreyle uyumluluk gibi avantajlarıyla öne çıkarak geleneksel konut mimarisinin önemli bir bileşeni olmuştur. Anadolu coğrafyasında özellikle Osmanlı dönemi sivil mimarisi içerisinde yaygın olarak kullanılan ahşap iskeletli konutlar hem mimari çeşitlilik hem de kültürel süreklilik açısından taşıdıkları değerlerle korunması gereken mimari miras unsurlarıdır. Ancak bu yapıların büyük çoğunluğu günümüzde afet riski, bozulma ve yanlış müdahaleler nedeniyle yok olma tehlikesi altındadır. Bu tez, İstanbul'da tarihi yarımadadaki yer alan ahşap iskeletli geleneksel konutların deprem performanslarının değerlendirilmesine yönelik kapsamlı bir çalışma sunmaktadır. Tezin birinci bölümünde araştırmanın amacı, kapsamı ve yöntemi açıklanmıştır. Çalışma tarihi yarımadada bulunan geleneksel ahşap yapıların olası bir Marmara Depremi senaryosu karşısında göstereceği davranışları tespit etmeyi hedeflemiştir. Geleneksel ahşap yapıların mimari ve taşıyıcı sistem özellikleri, geçmiş depremlerde gösterdiği performanslara dair örneklerle birlikte incelenmiş ve sahadan toplanan verilerle yapıların tipolojileri tanımlanmıştır. Yöntem olarak literatür taraması, yerinde gözlem, envanter verisi kullanımı ve fayda değeri analizi benimsenmiştir. İkinci ve üçüncü bölümlerde geleneksel ahşap konutların mimari karakteristikleri, yapım sistemleri ve geçmiş depremlerdeki davranış biçimleri değerlendirilmiştir. Karadeniz, Akdeniz, İç Anadolu ve Marmara bölgelerine özgü iklimsel ve sosyo-kültürel etkiler yapı formuna ve taşıyıcı özelliklerine doğrudan yansımıştır. Deprem kaynaklı hasar türleri, sıva çatlaklarından tamamen göçmeye kadar geniş bir spektrumda değerlendirilmiş ve bu hasarların nedenleri yapı elemanları düzeyinde analiz edilmiştir. Dördüncü bölümde, tarihi yarımadada tespit edilen konutlar mimari ve yapısal ölçütler doğrultusunda tipolojilere ayrılmış ve her bir tipin taşıyıcı sistem düzeni, malzeme kullanımı ve kat planı özellikleri detaylı olarak belgelenmiştir. Farklı konut tiplerinin deprem performansı geçmiş depremlerdeki davranış verileriyle karşılaştırılmıştır. Ayrıca yapıların genel olarak tarihi süreçte maruz kaldığı yangın, afet ve müdahale geçmişi de analiz edilmiştir. Beşinci ve altıncı bölümlerde, belirlenen tipolojilere ait yapıların zemin koşulları, yapım teknikleri, kullanıcı müdahaleleri ve bozulma düzeyleri gibi faktörler üzerinden olası Marmara Depremi senaryosuna göre hasar mekanizmaları modellenmiştir. Tipolojilere göre sınıflandırılmış yapıların risk düzeyleri tablolaştırılmış. Fayda değeri analizleriyle öncelikli müdahale gerektiren yapı grupları ortaya konmuştur. Sonuç olarak, geleneksel ahşap iskeletli yapıların korunması hem kültürel mirasın yaşatılması hem de deprem güvenliği açısından zorunlu bir yaklaşımdır. İstanbul'da tarihi yarımadadaki yapıların tipolojik ve yapısal özellikleri analiz edilerek olası bir Marmara Depremi senaryosunda gösterecekleri davranışlar değerlendirilmiştir. Zemin özellikleri, mimari özellikler, strüktürel bileşenler ve birleşim sistemleri, yapı ve yapım teknikleri, yıpranma ve bozulma ile kullanıcı müdahaleleri gibi bulgular yapıların performansını doğrudan etkilediğini ortaya konmuştur. Tipolojik sınıflandırma ve fayda değeri analizleri sayesinde riskli yapı tipolojileri belirlenerek öncelikli müdahale alanları tanımlanmıştır. Bu çerçevede geleneksel yapıların bilimsel temelli, yerel veriye dayalı ve önceliklendirilmiş koruma stratejileriyle ele alınması gerektiği sonucuna varılmıştır.

Özet (Çeviri)

Timber has historically stood out as a preeminent building material due to its inherent flexibility, light weight, renewability, and environmental compatibility, establishing it as a fundamental component of traditional residential architecture. The timber-framed houses widely employed within Ottoman-era civil architecture across the Anatolian geography constitute invaluable elements of architectural heritage, distinguished by both their cultural continuity and structural diversity. Although these structures possess functional and aesthetic qualities that have historically made them the preferred choice in seismic-prone regions, the widespread adoption of modern materials such as concrete and steel has led to a steady decline in their numbers. Furthermore, the majority of the remaining traditional stock currently faces a severe threat of extinction due to escalating disaster risks, particularly a potential Marmara Earthquake, compounded by material deterioration and inappropriate interventions over time. This thesis presents a comprehensive study evaluating the seismic performance of these traditional timber-framed houses located within the Historical Peninsula of Istanbul, with the primary objective of determining their structural behavior and potential damage mechanisms under a probable earthquake scenario. By identifying structural vulnerabilities across different building typologies, the research aims to establish a scientific foundation for defining prioritized intervention strategies necessary for their preservation. The first chapter of this thesis establishes the main goals, the limits of the study, and the methods used to research the safety of old houses. The primary aim is to understand how the traditional timber-framed houses in the Historical Peninsula of Istanbul will behave if a large earthquake happens in the Marmara region. Throughout history, timber has been a very popular building material because it has many good qualities. For example, it is flexible, it is not heavy, it can grow back in nature, and it is friendly to the environment. Because of these reasons, people used timber to build houses for hundreds of years. However, today, these important buildings face many big dangers. The biggest danger is the risk of a natural disaster, but there are also problems with the materials getting old and people making wrong changes to the buildings. The study looks at the traditional timber buildings in the whole country of Türkiye first, and then it focuses specifically on Istanbul. It tries to see the differences between regions because the environment and the building methods change from place to place. To do this research, the study uses three main steps. First, it reviews many books, articles, and reports about the history of these houses and how they acted in past earthquakes. Second, data were collected through on-site examinations carried out in the Historical Peninsula, where the houses were observed directly in their existing conditions. They also used lists of buildings from the local government to make the work faster. Third, they compared the different types of houses. Based on the differences in their structure, the buildings were divided into ten different groups, or typologies. Finally, the study used a calculation method called Benefit-Value Analysis. This method helps to give a score to the risk of damage for each group of houses in a possible earthquake scenario. The second chapter explains the architectural features and the different construction systems of traditional timber houses in detail. It shows that the way a house looks and stands is not just a random choice. The design depends heavily on the climate, the land shape, and the culture of the people living there. In Anatolia, different regions have different conditions. For example, the weather in the Black Sea region is not the same as in the Mediterranean or Central Anatolia. Also, the traditions, religious beliefs, and the amount of money people had changed the way they built their homes. The chapter describes how the timber construction systems changed over time. In the beginning, in places where there were forests and many trees, people built houses by stacking big logs on top of each other. This was a simple method called timber pile construction. However, as cities started to grow and become crowded, it became harder to find so many big trees. Because of this, builders needed a new and better way to build. They developed the timber-framed system. In this system, they used a frame made of vertical posts and horizontal beams. This skeleton supports the house. This change was very important because the timber-framed system is lighter and uses materials more efficiently. Understanding these regional differences and the history of the system is necessary to evaluate if the buildings are strong enough today. The third chapter looks at the history to see how traditional timber houses performed during earthquakes in the past. By looking at old reports, the study identifies the different types of damage that happen when the ground shakes. The research says that a building's ability to stay standing depends on several things working together. These things are the quality of the architectural design, the condition of the soil under the house, the type of construction system, the quality of the timber and stone, and the skill of the workers who built it. The study lists many types of damage, from small problems to very big dangers. Small damages include cracks in the plaster on the walls, broken chimneys on the roof, or pieces of mortar falling out. However, the study focuses more on the dangerous damages. A very common and serious problem is when the connections between the timber parts break. If the joints are weak or made poorly, the timber parts separate from each other. Another big problem is when the house moves too much to the side or when the walls fall outwards. The chapter also talks about specific problems like the separation of the timber frame from the stone walls and damage to the special projecting windows called cumbas. Also, in Istanbul, many houses are attached to each other in a row. During an earthquake, these houses can hit each other, which causes a pounding effect. The conclusion of this chapter is that a house usually does not collapse because of just one reason. Total collapse happens when many of these damage factors occur at the same time. The fourth chapter focuses specifically on the buildings in the Historical Peninsula of Istanbul and classifies them into groups. This area is very special but also very dangerous because it is close to the North Anatolian Fault. This is a major fault line that goes towards the Sea of Marmara. History records show that there have been thirty-four large and destructive earthquakes in this area since the 5th century. In addition to earthquakes, the timber houses have suffered greatly from big fires and years of neglect. Even though this area is on the UNESCO World Heritage List, statistics show that about ten percent of the registered historic houses have been destroyed or lost. Today, the buildings in the area are mostly of three types. The first type is masonry buildings made of stone or brick. The second type is buildings made entirely of timber. The third type is the mixed system. The mixed system is very common in Istanbul. In this system, the ground floor is made of masonry walls, and the upper floors use a timber-framed system. The study groups these houses to analyze them better. The classification looks at whether the house is standing alone or attached to neighbors. If it is attached, it looks at whether it is on the corner of the street or in the middle. It also separates the all-timber houses from the mixed system houses. Each of these types has different plans and materials. The fifth chapter evaluates the possible damage mechanisms for the identified house types in a future Marmara Earthquake scenario. It analyzes the risk by looking at six important factors that affect the performance of the building. These factors are the ground conditions, the architectural features, the structural components and connection systems, the building techniques, the deterioration or decay of materials, and the interventions made by users. The study explains that these factors affect each other. For instance, if the ground is weak, the foundation of the house can sink or settle unevenly. This puts extra stress on the timber frame above. Architectural features are also important. If the plan of the house is not regular or if the floors have different heights, the building does not move smoothly during an earthquake. The study puts a lot of emphasis on the structural components and the connection systems. In a timber-framed system, the points where the timber pieces connect are the most critical parts. If these connections are loose, the building cannot absorb the energy of the earthquake. Another major factor is decay. Timber is a natural material, so it can rot because of water or insects. If the timber is rotten, it loses its strength. Finally, the chapter looks at changes made by people living in the houses. Sometimes users remove a wall to make a room bigger or add heavy concrete layers. These uninformed interventions break the original system and make the house much weaker. The chapter models how these factors will lead to specific damages for each house type. The sixth chapter uses the Benefit-Value Analysis method to calculate the risk levels and decide which buildings need help first. This analysis creates eight different scenarios to test the safety of the houses. The scenarios are based on two main variables. The first variable is the quality of the connection systems. The second variable is the level of deterioration or damage the building already has. The study compares the current situation with a possible improved situation. In the current situation, most houses use traditional nailed connections. The analysis shows that these nailed connections are often not strong enough for a big earthquake. This inadequacy increases the risk value significantly. On the other hand, the study looks at a scenario where the connection systems are improved. In this improved scenario, the houses use better joinery and metal connection parts to hold the frame together. The results clearly show that if the connections are strengthened, the risk of damage goes down a lot. The analysis also identifies which specific group of houses is the most dangerous. The results point to the A4 type. The A4 type is a detached house with three floors and a mixed structural system. This type of house shows the worst performance in the analysis. Therefore, the study suggests that we must prioritize these high-risk buildings. We need to apply strengthening strategies to them immediately to prevent them from collapsing in the future. The seventh chapter provides the final conclusion and recommendations of the thesis. It states clearly that protecting traditional timber-framed structures is not a choice but a necessity. We must protect them to save our cultural history and to keep people safe from earthquakes. The detailed analysis of the Historical Peninsula confirms that the performance of a building depends on specific things. These are the soil, the shape of the building, the quality of the connections, the health of the timber, and the changes made by users. These are the main reasons why damage happens. Thanks to the classification of house types and the Benefit-Value Analysis, the study successfully found the most risky buildings. It defined the priority areas for intervention. Final conclusion is that a new approach to conservation is required. The external aesthetic qualities of the houses can no longer be the sole focus. Traditional timber-framed houses must be treated as complex engineering structures. Conservation strategies need to be grounded in scientific principles and supported by local data. The weak components, particularly the connection systems, should be strengthened through technical engineering methods. Only through such measures can these unique timber houses be safeguarded against the next major earthquake and preserved for future generations. Timber has historically stood out as a preeminent building material due to its inherent flexibility, light weight, renewability, and environmental compatibility, establishing it as a fundamental component of traditional residential architecture. The timber-framed houses widely employed within Ottoman-era civil architecture across the Anatolian geography constitute invaluable elements of architectural heritage, distinguished by both their cultural continuity and structural diversity. Although these structures possess functional and aesthetic qualities that have historically made them the preferred choice in seismic-prone regions, the widespread adoption of modern materials such as concrete and steel has led to a steady decline in their numbers. Furthermore, the majority of the remaining traditional stock currently faces a severe threat of extinction due to escalating disaster risks, particularly a potential Marmara Earthquake, compounded by material deterioration and inappropriate interventions over time. This thesis presents a comprehensive study evaluating the seismic performance of these traditional timber-framed houses located within the Historical Peninsula of Istanbul, with the primary objective of determining their structural behavior and potential damage mechanisms under a probable earthquake scenario. By identifying structural vulnerabilities across different building typologies, the research aims to establish a scientific foundation for defining prioritized intervention strategies necessary for their preservation. The first chapter of this thesis establishes the main goals, the limits of the study, and the methods used to research the safety of old houses. The primary aim is to understand how the traditional timber-framed houses in the Historical Peninsula of Istanbul will behave if a large earthquake happens in the Marmara region. Throughout history, timber has been a very popular building material because it has many good qualities. For example, it is flexible, it is not heavy, it can grow back in nature, and it is friendly to the environment. Because of these reasons, people used timber to build houses for hundreds of years. However, today, these important buildings face many big dangers. The biggest danger is the risk of a natural disaster, but there are also problems with the materials getting old and people making wrong changes to the buildings. The study looks at the traditional timber buildings in the whole country of Türkiye first, and then it focuses specifically on Istanbul. It tries to see the differences between regions because the environment and the building methods change from place to place. To do this research, the study uses three main steps. First, it reviews many books, articles, and reports about the history of these houses and how they acted in past earthquakes. Second, data were collected through on-site examinations carried out in the Historical Peninsula, where the houses were observed directly in their existing conditions. They also used lists of buildings from the local government to make the work faster. Third, they compared the different types of houses. Based on the differences in their structure, the buildings were divided into ten different groups, or typologies. Finally, the study used a calculation method called Benefit-Value Analysis. This method helps to give a score to the risk of damage for each group of houses in a possible earthquake scenario. The second chapter explains the architectural features and the different construction systems of traditional timber houses in detail. It shows that the way a house looks and stands is not just a random choice. The design depends heavily on the climate, the land shape, and the culture of the people living there. In Anatolia, different regions have different conditions. For example, the weather in the Black Sea region is not the same as in the Mediterranean or Central Anatolia. Also, the traditions, religious beliefs, and the amount of money people had changed the way they built their homes. The chapter describes how the timber construction systems changed over time. In the beginning, in places where there were forests and many trees, people built houses by stacking big logs on top of each other. This was a simple method called timber pile construction. However, as cities started to grow and become crowded, it became harder to find so many big trees. Because of this, builders needed a new and better way to build. They developed the timber-framed system. In this system, they used a frame made of vertical posts and horizontal beams. This skeleton supports the house. This change was very important because the timber-framed system is lighter and uses materials more efficiently. Understanding these regional differences and the history of the system is necessary to evaluate if the buildings are strong enough today. The third chapter looks at the history to see how traditional timber houses performed during earthquakes in the past. By looking at old reports, the study identifies the different types of damage that happen when the ground shakes. The research says that a building's ability to stay standing depends on several things working together. These things are the quality of the architectural design, the condition of the soil under the house, the type of construction system, the quality of the timber and stone, and the skill of the workers who built it. The study lists many types of damage, from small problems to very big dangers. Small damages include cracks in the plaster on the walls, broken chimneys on the roof, or pieces of mortar falling out. However, the study focuses more on the dangerous damages. A very common and serious problem is when the connections between the timber parts break. If the joints are weak or made poorly, the timber parts separate from each other. Another big problem is when the house moves too much to the side or when the walls fall outwards. The chapter also talks about specific problems like the separation of the timber frame from the stone walls and damage to the special projecting windows called cumbas. Also, in Istanbul, many houses are attached to each other in a row. During an earthquake, these houses can hit each other, which causes a pounding effect. The conclusion of this chapter is that a house usually does not collapse because of just one reason. Total collapse happens when many of these damage factors occur at the same time. The fourth chapter focuses specifically on the buildings in the Historical Peninsula of Istanbul and classifies them into groups. This area is very special but also very dangerous because it is close to the North Anatolian Fault. This is a major fault line that goes towards the Sea of Marmara. History records show that there have been thirty-four large and destructive earthquakes in this area since the 5th century. In addition to earthquakes, the timber houses have suffered greatly from big fires and years of neglect. Even though this area is on the UNESCO World Heritage List, statistics show that about ten percent of the registered historic houses have been destroyed or lost. Today, the buildings in the area are mostly of three types. The first type is masonry buildings made of stone or brick. The second type is buildings made entirely of timber. The third type is the mixed system. The mixed system is very common in Istanbul. In this system, the ground floor is made of masonry walls, and the upper floors use a timber-framed system. The study groups these houses to analyze them better. The classification looks at whether the house is standing alone or attached to neighbors. If it is attached, it looks at whether it is on the corner of the street or in the middle. It also separates the all-timber houses from the mixed system houses. Each of these types has different plans and materials. The fifth chapter evaluates the possible damage mechanisms for the identified house types in a future Marmara Earthquake scenario. It analyzes the risk by looking at six important factors that affect the performance of the building. These factors are the ground conditions, the architectural features, the structural components and connection systems, the building techniques, the deterioration or decay of materials, and the interventions made by users. The study explains that these factors affect each other. For instance, if the ground is weak, the foundation of the house can sink or settle unevenly. This puts extra stress on the timber frame above. Architectural features are also important. If the plan of the house is not regular or if the floors have different heights, the building does not move smoothly during an earthquake. The study puts a lot of emphasis on the structural components and the connection systems. In a timber-framed system, the points where the timber pieces connect are the most critical parts. If these connections are loose, the building cannot absorb the energy of the earthquake. Another major factor is decay. Timber is a natural material, so it can rot because of water or insects. If the timber is rotten, it loses its strength. Finally, the chapter looks at changes made by people living in the houses. Sometimes users remove a wall to make a room bigger or add heavy concrete layers. These uninformed interventions break the original system and make the house much weaker. The chapter models how these factors will lead to specific damages for each house type. The sixth chapter uses the Benefit-Value Analysis method to calculate the risk levels and decide which buildings need help first. This analysis creates eight different scenarios to test the safety of the houses. The scenarios are based on two main variables. The first variable is the quality of the connection systems. The second variable is the level of deterioration or damage the building already has. The study compares the current situation with a possible improved situation. In the current situation, most houses use traditional nailed connections. The analysis shows that these nailed connections are often not strong enough for a big earthquake. This inadequacy increases the risk value significantly. On the other hand, the study looks at a scenario where the connection systems are improved. In this improved scenario, the houses use better joinery and metal connection parts to hold the frame together. The results clearly show that if the connections are strengthened, the risk of damage goes down a lot. The analysis also identifies which specific group of houses is the most dangerous. The results point to the A4 type. The A4 type is a detached house with three floors and a mixed structural system. This type of house shows the worst performance in the analysis. Therefore, the study suggests that we must prioritize these high-risk buildings. We need to apply strengthening strategies to them immediately to prevent them from collapsing in the future. The seventh chapter provides the final conclusion and recommendations of the thesis. It states clearly that protecting traditional timber-framed structures is not a choice but a necessity. We must protect them to save our cultural history and to keep people safe from earthquakes. The detailed analysis of the Historical Peninsula confirms that the performance of a building depends on specific things. These are the soil, the shape of the building, the quality of the connections, the health of the timber, and the changes made by users. These are the main reasons why damage happens. Thanks to the classification of house types and the Benefit-Value Analysis, the study successfully found the most risky buildings. It defined the priority areas for intervention. Final conclusion is that a new approach to conservation is required. The external aesthetic qualities of the houses can no longer be the sole focus. Traditional timber-framed houses must be treated as complex engineering structures. Conservation strategies need to be grounded in scientific principles and supported by local data. The weak components, particularly the connection systems, should be strengthened through technical engineering methods. Only through such measures can these unique timber houses be safeguarded against the next major earthquake and preserved for future generations.

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