İstanbul topografyası üzerine görsel bir inceleme

Başlık çevirisi mevcut değil.

Tez No: 66789
Yazar: SEZER BAHTİYAR
Danışmanlar: PROF. DR. K. FERHAN YÜREKLİ
Tez Türü: Yüksek Lisans
Konular: Mimarlık, Architecture
Anahtar Kelimeler: Belirtilmemiş.
Yıl: 1997
Dil: Türkçe
Üniversite: İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi
Enstitü: Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü
Ana Bilim Dalı: Mimarlık Ana Bilim Dalı
Bilim Dalı: Bina Bilgisi Bilim Dalı
Sayfa Sayısı: 112

Özet

ÖZET İstanbul topografyasını ve topografyanın görsel etkilerini değerlendirmeyi amaç edinen bu araştırma beş bölümden oluşmaktadır. Birinci bölümde, konunun ele alınmasının sebepleri açıklanmaktadır. İkinci bölüm, yeryüzü biçiminin yerleşime olan etkisinin değerlendirildiği bölümdür. Bu bölümde yeryüzü biçiminin yerleşim yerinin seçimine olan etkisi, yerleşim kurulduktan sonraki etkileri ve topografyanın yerleşim yaşamına katkısının ne olduğu araştırılmaktadır. Bölümün sonunda araştırmadan elde edilen bilgiler yardımıyla İstanbul topografyası üzerinde incelemeler yapılmaktadır. Üçüncü bölümde, siluet kavramının tanımı yapılmakta ve siluetlerin değeri açıklanmakta ve topografya ile siluetler arasındaki ilişki ortaya konmaktadır. Bölümün son kısmında İstanbul siluetleri, elde edilen bilgiler ışığında değerlendirilmektedir. Dördüncü bölümde, görsel algıyı etkileyen faktörlerin neler olduğu araştırılmakta ve tesbit edilen faktörler açısından İstanbul için görsel algı değerlendirmesi yapılmaktadır. Beşinci bölüm ise tezin sonuçlarını içermektedir. Yapılan araştırmalar sonucunda elde edilen bilgilere dayanılarak İstanbul'un görsel değerinin hangi alanlarda etkili olabileceği değerlendirilmektedir.

Özet (Çeviri)

SUMMARY This thesis, which name is A Visual Research On The Topography Of Istanbul, is a research about the topography of Istanbul, and the its significance in the visual value system of the city. Istanbul has often been described as a major world city owing to its importance as a political, economical and cultural center, as well as to its beauty. Most accounts of the beauty of the city are accompanied by descriptions of its skyline. Norberg- Schulz, for instance, describes Istanbul as the city of skylines. A brief summary of the history of the city would contain the following phases: the first settlements which date back to 4000 BC, Byzantion as a Greek colony between 660 BC -300 BC, Constantinople as the capital of the Byzantine Empire between 300 BC, the capital of the Ottoman Empire between 1453 and 1920, and finally the largest city of the Turkish Republic. Throughout the ages the city has remained to be a major religious, political and commercial center. The skyline of Istanbul is comprised of monuments that date back to these historical periods, and taken at the building scale serve as major historical documents which explain the history and the architecture of these periods. The term skyline is described as the line created by buildings at the intersection of the earth and the sky. Therefore, one can argue that all the criticism and counter- criticism directed at the skyline is in fact targeted at this intersection line. The question that is posed here is whether it is sufficient to discuss the skyline of Istanbul in terms of the intersection line of the sky and its buildings only. The significance of Istanbul is derived from its historical, political, economical and cultural values, and the skyline of Istanbul is clearly part of the city's visual value system. The topography which plays a major role in the formation of such values also emerges as the most important factor that determines the skyline of the city. Therefore, any discussion of the skyline that excludes topography would not move beyond an analysis of visual values with the aid of historical ones. It is believed that the history of Istanbul, after all, is an outcome of the topography of the city. It is thought that this idea is supported by the works of many writers and historians. Tournier focuses on the importance of place:“Memories, just like plants, flourish in one soil and disappear in another.”Braudel likewise begins a history of Felipe II by a narrative of the topography of the Mediterranean region. History emerges in these works as the natural outcome of topography. The first part of this research focuses on the importance of topography as a factor that determines the formation of a settlement. Topography is derived from the Greek words topos and graphein which mean the earth and description respectively. A contemporary dictionary of geography defines the word as the art or science that renders the forms of earth on paper. However, a closer look at the etymological origins of the word reveals different meanings. The first use of the term implies a verbal description of the natural structure of a place whereas later uses refer to an image or drawing instead. Finally the word has been used to describe the physical entity itself, namely the surface formations of theearth. Any form of settlement is a result of the interaction of the place and man. Landform and topography are among the most important elements of the concept of place. The influence of topography on the concept of settlement has been analyzed in three parts: firstly the significance of topography in the choice of a place for a settlement, secondly the ways in which topography affects the characteristics of a place after the initial settlement has been established, and finally the immaterial effects of topography on a settlement. The first part begins by analyzing the earliest settlements in Anatolia. From what is known about these first settlements, one can generalize that flatlands, plateaus on hills, outskirts of mountains that face a valley formed by water, valleys between two hills or mountains were selected as places for a settlement provided that these land formations were surrounded by fertile lands in close proximity of a water source. One notices that the importance of topography for the settlement once the first settlement has been established varies with man's approach to topography, especially since man has shown himself to be the superior to nature. Although in the initial years of the settlement topography emerges as the major factor that determines the development, in the years that follow man changes topography to suit his needs. Among such changes are the flattening of hills, formation of hills on previously flat land, changing of the course of rivers, or filling in coasts to reclaim land. Intervention in topography is dependent on the development of new technologies. Instead of looking for an appropriate place to dwell, man now indiscriminately picks a site and changes the conditions of that site himself. Even in such settlements topography plays a key role. Increasingly the experience of life reminds man of the importance of the concepts of place and genius loci as the most important factor in the determination of a sense of place. The analysis of the effects of topography on the experience of dwelling focuses on the experience of living on a hill, mountain, shore or valley. This research assumes that the interaction between man and the environment happens in two distinct modes: the rational mode and the intuitive mode. Topography which may facilitate or complicate life, and may bring beauty or fear may affect man in both of these modes. One interesting result of this research has been the observation that settlements usually happen in more than one layer. Once the initial site of settlement has been established, subsequent settlements accumulate over this first settlements no matter how badly the previous settlements were destroyed. The same is true for Istanbul for which topography was a major factor both in the initial settlements and the subsequent developments of the city. Thus, topography turns out to be influential in providing visual beauty. The next section of the research analyzes the effects of topography on the skyline of a city which is taken to be synonymous with visual beauty. The following table summarizes the distinct ways in which topography affects the formation of a skyline: XllTable 1When the city is placed on a hill by the sea, a band of land becomes a zone for a harbor. Especially where the hill is steep, the city has two sections, one above the other. Thus, the harbor appears below the city that is developed on the outskirts of the hill and on the hill itself. Example Assos. the point of view inside the settlement When the city is placed on the two banks of a body of water, the skyline is different from that of a valley. The presence of the other side and a settlement pattern that does not block the perception of the other side are very important. Such a structure creates new points of view for the perception of the city. The sea, the shore and the points of view provided by tall buildings gain significance. Buildings tend to be taller away from the shore as the perception of the other bank is extremely important. Example Rotterdam. When the city is placed on the outskirts of two concave hills by a sea or river, important vista points may happen at different spots depending on the width of the river. The shore is important as well as the special points of view above the hills. Example Amasya When the city is placed on two hills by a sea or river, depending on the layout and height of the buildings each point on the hill or on a ridge may provide special points of view. In addition, bridges that connect the hills may be the site for unique vista points. When analyzed in terms of the buildings that constitute it, the skyline of a city is evaluated in two phases, namely before and after high-rise buildings and skyscrapers. Such a distinction assumes that before skyscrapers, the skyline of a city was shaped by political or religious powers that represented the majority, whereas the skyline after the emergence of skyscraper was largely determined by the economic power of a privileged minority. The importance of skylines is clearly derived from their symbolic meanings. Such meanings can take various forms such as representation of power, symbolic signification, iconic importance of a city or the representation of the social structure. It should be noted that the unique aesthetic qualities of the resultant form of the city become the possession of the whole city and not simply of individuals. That is precisely why the formation of skylines is controlled by legislation. Istanbul owes its importance as the capital of two great empires to the advantages of its geography. During its life as capital the city enjoyed prominence as both political and religious center. Istanbul bears the traces of all powers that reigned on its land, and thus the skyline created by the monuments from its long past is an image of the history of the city starting with the first Greek colonial settlements on XIVSaraybumu, and continuing with the East Roman Empire. The Byzantine Empire took a role in the formation of the skyline of the city by constructing Hagia Sophia on the plateau above Sarayburnu at a point visible from Haliç, and the city walls around the seven hills of the city. The unique skyline of the historical peninsula from Haliç was constituted mainly by the Ottomans who skillfully intervened in the hills parallel to the Haliç shore. Because the development of villages along the Bosphorus during the Ottoman Empire was limited, the skyline created by these settlements was to a large extent dominated by the outskirts of the hills behind them. As a result, the skyline of the Bosphorus assumed the shape of horizontal bands starting with a line describing the outline of the hill, a green belt in between and finally on the shore piers, yalis and palaces. After the foundation of Republic, the urban fabric on the historical peninsula changed significantly but in no way to change the skyline. After the development of a an axes between Mecidiyekoy and Buyukdere as a commercial business district, the European side of the city was increasingly defined by tall buildings which create a generic skyline that is by no means unique to the city. This commercial axes is visible above the ridge of the hills. On the Anatolian side of the city, on the other hand, the skyline is largely created by the sprawl of residential buildings. Skylines have highly dynamic visual structures that change with the change of time and of points of view, as well as with the changes that continuously go on in a living city. However, not every perceived skyline is visually and perceptually valuable. The most valuable are those that represent the character of the totality of the city at points made accessible to the observer. Although most cities offer not more than a few of such special vista points, due to its characteristic topography, Istanbul is extremely rich in both its vista points, and the ability of such points to provide skylines that reflect the character of the city. Istanbul is a city made up of pieces of land separated by water where construction is impossible. The shores of the city are so close together and the relationship between the hills, valleys and peninsulas are so unique that skylines of the city are not simply perceived from special vista points, but become an important part of the everyday life experience of its dwellers. The historical monuments of the city contribute to the city by interacting with the place on which they were built. After this discussion of the meaning and significance of the skyline of the city as a visual value, it is possible to move on to an analysis of the topography of Istanbul as a component that constitutes this visual value. One may discuss visual value in relation to two elements: firstly qualities of the object, and second the evaluation of these qualities by an observing subject. The conditions of the medium affect both the qualities of the object and the perception of the subject. The emergence of visual value happens at moment of the coexistence of these two elements. Color, form and texture are inherent in the structure of the object. The color of the object is perceived in relation to its hue and value, and its relation to its context. The texture is the characteristic of the texture. The change in the perception of form, which is the most constant characteristics of an object, does not change as much, and is dependent on its surfaces and boundaries which are related with color and texture. Because form is a three-dimensional concept it is perceptually more dominant than color and texture which are two-dimensional qualities. Objects have be evaluated within the context in which they exist. The relationship between objects may happen in a number of ways: figure-ground, continuity, axis,directions, and boundaries. The juxtaposition of objects create a conception of scale which inherently implies not a single object but an object in a context where a relationship with other objects is created. Natural elements create the landscape whose visual evaluation depends likewise on the way its elements relate to each other. The following are seven categories that suggest different relationships between the elements of the landscape: panoramic, feature, enclosed, focal, canopied, detail and ephemeral. The perception of such qualities is affected by certain conditions of the environment, among them light, conditions of the atmosphere, time, movement, distance and the position of the observer. The visual value of the object changes as one quality of the object becomes more dominant because of the changes in the conditions of the environment. The evaluation of the object by an observing subject is the second factor that affects visual value. Because the evaluation is made by the formation of an image in the human mind, the result is highly subjective. The visual value of an object changes with the personal past and the future expectations of the subject. The subject perceives and evaluates in relation to the values that he has learned from his social environment, and retains his perception in the form of schemas or images. Such images are not constant, but rather change and develop through time and in the course of perception. The cognitive schema is variable and personal, however the dependence of personal evaluations on social values allows us to generalize personal evaluations to a certain extent. Man expects the environment in which he dwells to have unique characteristics, namely genius loci, and to create a feeling of security. The awareness of these two properties, which are essential for man depends, on the easy perception of place. The city is a totality that is constituted by a number of objects whose visual quality changes continuously. Below is an evaluation of Istanbul in terms of qualities that relate to an object: Historical depictions of the city prove it to be an accumulation of figures of mosques, minarets, kiosks, yalis, white piers and red-tile roofs on the background of dark blue and green. Today one observes that the relationship has been inverted from a green texture to a white one. Instead of kiosks foregrounded against green, the urban fabric is now dominantly white and only punctuated with small areas of green left in between tightly-packed buildings. Such recent development has changed the dark blue of the sea as well. The green takes different shades with the change from a cemetery to a wooded area or to a meadow. Today, the small woods and cemeteries are the most important elements in the green structure of the city. While the trees contribute to the flora of the city, the bushes and smaller vegetation allow for seasonal color changes. The cemeteries have the dark green of Cupressus simpervinens, while the wooded areas accommodate deciduous trees which shed their trees according to a certain time cycle. The following plants are central to determining the form and color of the Bosphorus: Platanus orientalis, Quercus pedunculiflora, Pinus pinea, Acer campestre, Pistacia terebinthus, Arbutus unedo, Cercis siliquastrum, Spartium juncem. Especially in spring these plants create amazing yellows and purples which contrast with dark green. Also important to visual perception are plants which do not naturally grow in the city but have been cultivated by man instead. XVISimilarly, the urban fabric of Istanbul can be said to be now dominated by buildings. In the historical centers of the city such as the historical peninsula, Galata and Üsküdar, large public buildings are foregrounded on a tightly-woven fabric of small- scale residential buildings. In the new settlements around the Bosphorus, on the other hand, large and tall commercial buildings accompany smaller-scale buildings. After the construction of the two bridges across the Bosphorus, linear settlements along the connecting freeways have emerged. The most unique fabric of Istanbul is the one created by the intersection of valleys by serpentine outskirts, and the light and shadow created by such intersections. The form of the city of Istanbul is clearly its most characteristic quality. In contrast to other factors, the form of the city has undergone relatively little change and is still legible today. The recent buildings especially in the Mecidiyeköy-Büyükdere axes have usually been placed according to their proximity to major routes and centers, whereas most historical buildings are observed to have been placed carefully in relation to topography. Despite such recent interventions, however, the city still preserves its unique characteristics because the topography is so dominant. The rich spatial experience which relates to human scale is created by the complex topography which changes direction to enclose and to open, to generate the effect of a lake or a river at times. The presence of the two shores separated by the sea have an impact on visual perception. Because the Bosphorus lays in the North- South direction, the daylight creates a skyline on the Anatolian side in the morning, and strong shadows on the European side in the afternoon. The wind and the fog are other factors that affect visual perception. In foggy weather, the distance of perception drops significantly, whereas with Lodos, it becomes possible to perceive long distances in detail. Topography allows for the visual perception of distances of different ranges at the same time. Due to the presence of smoothly sloping hills and shores on the other side of the Bosphorus, the observer can perceive the city at different levels: at the low level of the shore, at the intermediate level of the outskirts of a hill, and at the high level of the top of the hills and the bridges. Thus every street, open space and even window provides a different point of view. The hills and bridges are the locus of panoramic vista points, whereas the shores provide enclosed and focal view points. In certain special points one can get ephemeral views that are dependent on atmospheric conditions. A research lists nine vista points in Istanbul that provide panoramic views: Yuşa Tepesi in Anadolu Kavaği, Fundalık Tepe between Kefeliköy and Kireçburnu, above the Shell Depots between Gümüşsüyü and Beykoz, the ridge of Vakıf Bağlari around İstinye, the ridge of Çubuklu, the ridge of Kandilli in Küçüksu mevkii, and the ridges of Kuruçeşme and Beylerbeyi. The perception of the city is important for the observer to understand the different aspects of the city and to create a sense of security which enables the subject to belong to a place. As for Istanbul, the special topography of the hills and the interaction of this topography with the sea allows the dweller on the bus, at home or on a ferry trip to visually perceive the city without necessarily being present at special vista points. In a city in which the past and the present, continuity and change coexist, it would be very easy for the dwellers to feel alienated. It is the visual continuity provided by the unique topography of Istanbul that prevents such alienation. Because the dweller of Istanbul can continuously perceive the changes going on in the scale of the whole city, they can easily adapt to the new conditions and still retain a sense of place.This research also shows that a discrepancy exists between the physical and the perceived topography of Istanbul. The topography of the city is often perceived higher than it really is, as can be seen in the descriptions of the“high hills”in a number of sources. For instance, some depictions of the historical peninsula seem to contradict the fact that an elevation difference of 20 meters in such a large area is relatively hard to be perceived by human eye. In this last section of the research photographs and historical depictions of the city have been compared with a computer model that shows the actual elevation of the historical peninsula, and the Dolmabahçe, Boyacıköy, Beylerbeyi and Kanlıca sections of the Bosphorus in order to prove the existence of such a perceptual illusion. This research about the topography of Istanbul shows that visual qualities which have such a great important for urbanity are affected by topography. Once the significance of topography to create visual values, and the importance of such values in human life are well established, it becomes clear that every urban development has to take into consideration such values in relation to an understanding of topography.

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