Gelişmekte olan ülkelerde teknoloji politikalarının belirlenmesi ve Türkiye'deki durum
Technology policies in developing countries and the situatiın in Turkey
- Tez No: 66711
- Danışmanlar: DOÇ. DR. TUFAN V. KOÇ
- Tez Türü: Yüksek Lisans
- Konular: Endüstri ve Endüstri Mühendisliği, Industrial and Industrial Engineering
- Anahtar Kelimeler: Belirtilmemiş.
- Yıl: 1997
- Dil: Türkçe
- Üniversite: İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi
- Enstitü: Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü
- Ana Bilim Dalı: Mühendislik Yönetimi Ana Bilim Dalı
- Bilim Dalı: Belirtilmemiş.
- Sayfa Sayısı: 144
Özet
ÖZET Teknolojik gelişmeler ülkelerin ekonomik ve endüstriyel yapısını etkilediği gibi, siyasi ve sosyal yapısını da değişikliklere uğratmaktadır. Bu sebeple bütün ülkeler bilim ve teknoloji politikalarını bir sistem olarak ele almakta, sürekli gelişen teknolojiye sahip olmak ve rekabet güçlerini artırmak amacıyla Ar-Ge çalışmalarına önemli kaynaklar ayırmaktadırlar. Özellikle son on yılda, ülkelerin ve firmaların uluslararası alanda rekabet gücünü belirleyen faktörler; teknolojik yenilik, ürün farklılaştırması, yabancı firmalarla kurulan ortaklıklar ve stratejik yönetim olmuştur. Bu faktörler ise yüksek teknoloji ile oluşmakta, yoğun Ar-Ge harcamaları ile şekillenmektedir. Sanayide rekabet gücünün yükseltilmesi, uluslararası pazarlara ucuz-kaliteli mal ve hizmet sunulması; ancak Ar-Ge harcamalarının artırılması, araştırmacı insangücü kaynaklarının geliştirilmesi ve üniversite-sanayi-devlet işbirliğinin etkin olarak sürdürülmesiyle mümkün olmaktadır. Gelişmiş ülkelerle karşılaştırıldığında ülkemizin Ar-Ge faaliyetlerine ayırdığı milli kaynağın, araştırmacı personel sayısının ve patent başvurularının yetersiz olduğu görülmektedir. Bu durum beş yıllık planlarda da gözönüne alınarak, teknolojik düzeyi artırmak amacıyla bazı hedefler belirlenmiştir. G.S.M.H. içinde Ar-Ge harcamalarının payını artırmak, bilim ve teknoloji yeteneğini yükselterek yeni teknolojilere erişmek, teknolojiyi transfer yoluyla edinmek, özümsemek, geliştirmek veya ülke içinde yeni teknolojiler üretmek, elde edilen teknolojileri ekonominin tüm alanlarına yaymak ve teknoloji tabanını yeni teknolojilerle ikame etmek en önemli hedefler arasında yeralmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, gelişmekte olan ülkelerde mevcut durumda teknolojik düzeyi artırma amaçlı olarak izlenen politikalardan ve bu politikaların nasıl geliştirilebileceğinden sözedilmektedir. Gelişme yönünde başarılı adımlar atmış Uzakdoğu ülkelerindeki uygulamalar da örnek olarak yeralmaktadır. Ayrıca ülkemizde bu konuda ne tür çalışmalar yapıldığı açıklanmakta ve TÜBİTAK, TTGV gibi kurumların Ar-Ge çalışmalarını nasıl desteklediği, teşvik ettiği adım adım açıklanmaktadır. Türkiye için Expert Choice paket programı ile hazırlanan uygulamada özel sektör Ar-Ge çalışmalarının ülkenin teknolojik düzeyini artırmadaki önemi vurgulanmaktadır. Ülkemiz henüz sanayileşme eşiğini aşmamış olmasına rağmen yoğun olarak Avrupa Birliği'ne giriş çabalarının sürdürmektedir. Bu çabaların bir kısmı da ülkenin teknolojik düzeyini artırarak varlığını tüm dünyaya kanıtlamak amacına yöneliktir. Çünkü teknolojik üstünlük uluslararası arenada söz sahibi olmanın yollarından biridir. Ürünün kalitesinde, teslimat hızında, çevreci olup olmamasında v.b. müşteri isteklerini sağlamada teknoloji büyük bir kısıt oluşturmaktadır. Bu kısıtı aşmak ise, ancak daha yoğun Ar-Ge çabaları ile mümkün olacaktır. Gelişmekte olan ülkeler kalkınma hedefleri doğrultusunda kendilerine özgü bir bilim ve teknoloji politikası oluşturarak, teknolojik gelişme stratejilerini belirlerse ve Ar-Ge yatırımlarını yoğunlaştırırlarsa, gelişme yolunda daha hızlı adımlar atabileceklerdir. viii
Özet (Çeviri)
SUMMARY TECHNOLOGY POLICIES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AND THE SITUATION IN TURKEY Technology constitutes specific knowledge, abilities, methods and equipment facilitating deployment of scientific and engineering knowledge. The total of a company's deployed technology represents the technology potential being subjected to technology management. Technology Management aims at exploiting company's full available scientific and engineering potential. This is crucial for all firms because it shows how to decide the appropriate total R&D investment and how to improve R&D productivity and the other critical issues. It is vital for firms as R&D becomes one of the essential driving forces for growth and it is vital for nations also as it is a strategic tool in the way of national development. Technology management is addressed to decision-making and implementation for leadership in the management of existing and emerging technologies. It covers both operational and strategic decision levels and both policy and global issues. Over the past 45 year history of technology management, a wide variety of related studies have been performed such as, innovation, new product development, management of technological organizations, engineering education, resource and energy management and project and product management. In developing countries the creation and strengthening of technological capability is one of the major goals of most activities relating to science and technology. Technological capability is something that enables a developing country to exploit fully existing technologies. GOVERNMENT AS TECHNOLOGY POLICY-MAKER An optimal policy-making framework for science and technology would seem to be one that produces the best possible fit between social values and the internal dynamics of science and technology. An optimal framework must therefore be based on accurate conception of the nature of science and technology. Policy should be based on realistic conceptions of the possible achievements of science and technology and of their relations to each other and their social context. Policy reevaluation is appropriate whenever public debate indicates that a discrepancy exists between what the public believes science and technology should be achieving and what science and technology actually seem to achieve. IXThis discrepancy can stem from the public's unrealistic expectations for science and technology but it might also result from policy that fails to develop the full potential of the enterprises. But the problem may have been rooted equally in a policy-making framework that was based on an inaccurate conception of the nature of science and technology. Government may supply funds for pure research. The scientific community should be in charge of disbursing these funds on the basis of scientific merit, presumably through a panel of experts chosen from all disciplines. A policy-making framework that is sensitive only to economic values would produce failures. If on one hand, a policy-maker ignores the special problems of modern technology, relying primarily on analysis of economic impacts, then policy may fail at the implementation stage. If on the other hand, a policy-maker considers the complex and difficult issues posed by modern technology, then policy may fail at the formulation stage because no other analytical framework is available that accommodates those issues. Unlike the case of science, social forces and practical goals always determine the current state and direction of technology research. Achieving a harmony between science and technology and the interested concerns of the public is one of the great challenges of the twentieth century. To meet this challenge governmental policy-makers must acknowledge the intrinsic ethical and social dimensions of science and technology policy issues and thus expand the range of relevant experts beyond scientists and engineers to include members of the general public. At the same time the public must acknowledge the social and ethical significance of scientific and technological developments and prepare for its new role as an expert by being informed about the relevant types of consequences. INNOVATION A principal concern of government today is how to make best use of the science and technology base to foster innovation and economic competitiveness. National and transnational programs in the public sector and firm based activity within and between countries combine to produce a new type of innovation dynamic that is more complex, more demanding, and as heavily dependent on the organizational as it is on technical change for its success. Innovation applies to new products and systems, new technologies and services -in short, to everything the outside world- perceives as a company's output. Furthermore every single function within the company can be influenced by innovation. This includes R&D, production, marketing, sales and recycling. In the final analysis, innovation can influence the entire structure and culture of a company. Organizations have to be in a position to adapt to technological innovation. In order to be in a position to adapt, management must have knowledge of the kind of technological innovation that will become available. To develop this knowledge, the firm must have a strategy for searching relevant areas for this type of information.It can be assumed that the potential technological innovations form a statistical distribution of some shape. The firm's search process is an attempt to determine the kind of innovation that may develop and the probability that it will. The firm must then decide whether or not it believes the innovation will come to fruition. If the answer is positive, then the organization's management must begin to make plans for adapting the firm to the new technology. It must examine the organizational structure to determine the changes that will be beneficial if the innovation is applied. Questions of the degree of the centralization or decentralization must be faced. Management must analyze the organization to determine the obstacles to change that exist. A major problem of firms around the world is the development of new technology and the adaptation of the firm to the technological change. Increasingly, we must find ways to sharpen our ability to do technological forecasting and to translate these forecasts into strategies that enable the organization to maximize its opportunities for gain from these technologies. This approach means that more attention must be paid to the problems of managing technology within the firm. We need to look at the problems of adaptation and develop the set of necessary conditions for management to make a transition to a new technology in a way that will help the firm achieve its profit goals. These problems are difficult ones and require an interdisciplinary approach. UNIVERSITY-INDUSTRY-GOVERNMENT AND RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS COLLABORATION In keeping pace with a changing global economy, university/industry/government partnerships have become extremely significant and important technology transfer instruments in all over the world. These partnerships have also created challenges and opportunities that necessitate a new culture or mindset for the collaborating partners. The early identification and awareness of barriers that may jeopardize an effective collaboration has presented itself as one of the challenges. Examples confirm that a well-planned and carefully implemented university/industry/government and research institutions' collaboration always result in beneficial situation for all the partners involved. One of the primarily benefit of this collaboration is the creation and maintenance of an effective technology transfer mechanism. The identification and awareness of barriers that may jeopardize such an effective mechanism is a major challenge and necessities a new or revised mindset for the collaborating partners. In the era of static and shrinking resources, innovation ventures in the delivery of continuing education and in the conduct of joint research have helped optimize resources available to collaborating partners, and have also promoted a mutual understanding of the issues involved in such partnerships. However to achieve a win-win scenario, all partners must approach such ventures with a new mindset that is cognizant of the different missions of collaborating organizations. As in any successful relationship, partners must have a positive attitude and mutual respect and a commitment to the joint venture. XIUncertainty and inappropriability are the two major reasons for the institutional failure of innovation systems. To reduce both these problems, government, industry associations, research institutions and firms with the help of university have to be able to integrate the sequence of technology scanning, technology forecasting, technology planning, technology development and commercialization of technology. Systematic future-oriented thinking helps government, industry associations and firms to initiate technology development efforts in a coherent way. Governmental action is currently aimed at information exchange between research institutions and industry associations through autonomous networks in the identified areas, for rapid diffusion of innovations in high technology. For linking technological forecasts and R&D plans, the three institutional arrangements can be used :. Initiating the development of technologies that have wide applications by government research institutes.. Assigning technologies with wide diffusion potential to industries and disseminating the results.. Joint technology development for fusing different technological competencies to commercialize futuristic concepts. The establishment of a lasting partnership brings about unlimited opportunities for all parties involved. And this brings flexibility and mutual support. UNIVERSITY-GOVERNMENT R&D INTERACTIONS The government can play an important role to promote research and development activities. However it should take into account that another indispensable factor that might be considered to be more important in a sense, that is, the role of the university. Most universities play the important role for education of scientists and engineers of the next generation in performing their own research activities. They have their excellent way of thinking and act respectively taken over historically. However in order to correspond more flexibly with sufficient sensitivity to the new situation for science and technology and contribute to solution of global problems, the universities also have to innovate themselves to become a new center of excellence for performing the basic research and development and educating personnel for R&D of the next generation. UNIVERSITY-INDUSTRY R&D INTERACTIONS There is a wide variety in the organizational structure of university-industry R&D interactions. For instance universities may collaborate with industry via tightly structured contrast research agreements, short-term research projects with clear deliverables, or long term inter-organizational associations with relatively non specific outcome expectations. Universities enter into agreements with new technology start-up companies as well as with long-established firms independently while other times center or consortium structures mandate multiple company xninteractions. Individual university researchers may independently participate in private consulting arrangements with companies. Industry can take advantages of university connections in numerous ways. Those parts of the business community emerging from down-sizing and internal R&D cuts, can look to the universities to feel a need. Instead of equipping an expensive internal R&D facility, companies can take advantage of an already existing and less expensive source of research capability -the university lab. Firms can decide to do this in different ways. They can hire university researchers as private consultants or pay university-overhead rates and sponsor the needed research. Companies can let universities hatch patentable ideas and then license them for further development and marketing. New companies can be spun-off university research efforts as new revenues of science and technology emerge. Companies with internally strong R&D components can augment their efforts by linking to the university. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY IN TURKEY In Turkey, TÜBİTAK is the key player in R&D activities. Its mission is to carry out, promote, organize, coordinate and evaluate R&D activities in natural and applied sciences in accordance with targets set in five year development plans for the country. Science and technology policy in Turkey is directed by The Supreme Council for Science and Technology. The council is chaired by the Prime Minister and comprises number of key government ministers and other influential people. At its meeting in February 1993, the Council decided that the target for Gross Expenditure in R&D should be to achieve 1% of G.D.P. within 10 years. Another important decision is to set the target of doubling our R&D work force again the same period. In 1993 TUBA(Turkish Academy of Sciences) is held. It is the premier scientific body in Turkey and distinguished scientists are elected within its job. These elected scientists advise on overall scientific policy and assess the impact of world scientific trends on Turkey and the need for expertised specialized resources. The Supreme Council for Science and Technology and TÜBİTAK together determine Turkey's national science and technology policies. One major national development strategy is to set up appropriate institutional arrangements for the promotion, coordination and review of the specific technology policy objectives and corresponding strategies, national or sectoral. Technological development policies within overall national development policy should include;. The promotion of national capability for the production and dissemination of technologies,. The promotion of national capability for technological innovation.. The promotion of national capability for technological innovation.. The development of an organized process for technological transfer from abroad. XlllR&D INCENTIVES IN TURKEY Innovation is vital for the success of industries at the competitive world markets. Turkey today seems not well placed in this regard compared to its rivals. Coordination of R&D activities in Turkey are not adequate and in any case less well developed compared to her competitors. Following points illustrate the today's situation:. R&D effort is insufficient. It is approximately 0.5 % of GNP in Turkey while it is more than % 2 in USA and Japan.. There are not enough researchers, 8 per 10,000 against more than 90 in EU.. Very little university industry interaction.. Innovation financing system is not well developed.. Turkish industry is facing new challenges after Customs Union Agreement with the European Union. Therefore it is essential for Turkey to take serious measures in the following areas:. To support R&D efforts specially of the companies and help for coordination.. Arrange legal and regulatory environment favorable to innovation.. Human resources must be developed.. Financing of innovation has to be improved. The research and development incentives in Turkey do not have a long history. The only incentive for R&D activities in industry until June 1995 was a restricted tax deferment for R&D expenditures that become effective in 1989. In 1995, Turkish Government has decided to introduce two new incentives in R&D area that are, * Grants to industrial R&D projects. * Tax incentives to R&D investments. The council that is responsible of determining the projects that will gain these incentives is Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey, TÜBİTAK. Starting from September 1995, Turkish companies have started submitting their R&D projects to TÜBİTAK for evaluation for the two new incentives. And it is seen that the response from Turkish industry was beyond expectations. Turkey putting her signature to GATT Uruguay Round Final Document and Signing Customs Union Agreement with EU have already made the decision to be part of the global market. This decision simply implies that Turkish companies has to be competitive in the world market, which is only possible with enough emphasis on promotion of innovation in the country. Therefore the existing R&D incentives should be carefully implemented and new incentives must be brought in within the constraint of GATT agreement. TTGV AND INDUSTRIAL R&D SUPPORT IN TURKEY Technology Development Foundation of Turkey (TTGV) is, a NGO, one of the several organizations engaged in promoting and supporting industrial R&D(IRD) in Turkey. It was founded by the joint efforts of private and public sectors on June 1991. The initial assets of the Foundation amount to 225,000 USD donated by the founders and 43.3 million USD obtained through a Loan Agreement signed XIVbetween the International Bank of Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) and the Republic of Turkey. Since its foundation, TTGV has assumed a central role in financing IRD's and set standards for valorization of IRD's. The Foundation administers projects financed through three different sources. Technology Development Project is financed by World Bank Through Undersecretariat of Treasury. The Phase Out of Ozone Depleting Substances Project is financed by Montreal Protocol Multilateral Fund. Furthermore, the Foundation has signed a protocol on June 1995 with the undersecretaries of Foreign Trade to administer and manage State Support to Industrial R&D. TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT MODEL Today technology and science as its source, are the main conditions for the continuity of market economy. Economic, social and political forces are searching for new balance on this base and social structures are shaped according to these researches. Collaboration between universities, industries and research institutions is very important for catching up advanced technologies. Government must encourage these foundations' R&D collaboration for technological development of the country. In developing countries, technology is transferred by various ways. These transferred technologies must fit the national resources so they must be improved in accordance with national conditions. This can be done with R&D activities in the country. Technologies developed directly in the country or transferred from outside bring new technological areas, innovations or improve the existing technologies These new areas, innovations or improvements develop the product design, innovate the process or changes the production according to environmental needs. With these improvements in production and design activities, harm to nature and product costs are minimized, quality of product and speed of product delivery is maximized. Firms with all these developments obtain new local and foreign market opportunities. While the firms market opportunities are broaden, firms' market power against their rivals will increase and the result is the increase in sales at local and foreign markets. These profitable firms then can distribute more resources for R&D activities and can give more tax. More taxes mean more income of government. Firms that want to stay powerful in the markets will need more R&D activity which can activate the collaboration with universities and R&D institutions. Active collaboration with firms and more support of government to R&D activities can increase the income of universities and R&D institutions that may bring development together. By means of these improvements -firms' technological improvements, increase in government resources, improvements at universities and at R&D institutions- the developing country can supply the national development and gain international competition force against the rivals. XVANALYTIC HIERARCHY PROCESS AND EXPERT CHOICE In the early 1970s, Expert Choice co-founder, Thomas L. Saaty developed the decision-making methodology known as the Analytic Hierarchy Process to help individuals and groups deal with the complexity inherent in multi-criteria based decisions. While many other decision support methodologies met varying degrees of success, the AHP allowed decision makers to capture their expert knowledge of the problem while incorporating both subjective and objective data into a logical, hierarchic framework. Above all, the AHP provides decision makers a common sense approach to evaluating the importance of every element of a decision through a unique pair- wise comparison process. Expert Choice is a multi-criteria decision support software tool which is based on the world's popular decision making methodology: the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). In its simplest form, an Evaluation and Choice hierarchical model is comprised of a goal, criteria, and the alternatives that have been identified. Once a model is laid out, Evaluation and Choice guides in judging, via pair-wise comparisons, the relative importance of the criteria, and the preference for the alternatives. By performing pairwise comparisons on criteria, it is possible to derive quantitative values (or weights) for the criteria and alternatives. Expert Choice enables decision makers to effectively sort out complexity and assist with the subjectivity that is inherent in many decisions. Evaluation and Choice derives priorities based on intangible information from your experience and intuition, and tangible information such as data. The Expert Choice software provides logical and powerful tools for comparing many alternative courses of action when confronted with numerous conflicting criteria or objectives. CASE STUDY With the help of AHP methodology and its software Expert Choice, we can establish a model of Turkey for technologic development. To increase the technological level of the country can be the aim of the model. On the basis of AHP the first step is to decide the significance degree of the sectors according to their share in GNP. For the second level, prioritization process should be done by asking a group of experts from different areas such as manufacturing, service, sociology and economics. For the third level which concerns with generic technologies, the comparison table prepared by OECD in 1988 can be used. For the decision level, a group of experts from different R&D centers and generic technology areas are required. According to their ideas pair-wise comparisons can be done. In order to reach the final relative priorities and priority degrees of R&D center types that contribute to the major benefit consideration, to increase the XVItechnological level of the country, AHP is operated manually or through package programs i.e. Expert Choice. Resources are limited and very important for the developing countries. Therefore assignment of resources to needs should be done very carefully and be relied on scientific base. At this point AHP provides a very useful tool for arranging their R&D process types to create technology potential for the increase in technological level of the country. With respect to AHP pairwise comparisons are made and matrixes are prepared on the Expert Choice software. According to the results, although alternative's importance are close to each other, the R&D departments of private companies seem to be the most important factor in the way to reach the final aim. This analysis is a tool for deciding the point to begin with to reach the aim for technological development. This decision can be gained by some other analysis methods and this case study can be broaden. The next step after these analysis should be the allocation of resources according to the data provided by the model with more detailed development programs for R&D alternatives. XVll
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