Bowen oranı enerji dengesi yöntemi kullanılarak yüzey ile atmosfer arasındaki enerji akılarının analizi: Buğday bitkisi örneği
Analysis of energy fluxes between the surface and the atmosphere using the Bowen ratio energy balance method: A case study for winter wheat
- Tez No: 949021
- Danışmanlar: PROF. DR. LEVENT ŞAYLAN
- Tez Türü: Yüksek Lisans
- Konular: Meteoroloji, Ziraat, Meteorology, Agriculture
- Anahtar Kelimeler: Belirtilmemiş.
- Yıl: 2025
- Dil: Türkçe
- Üniversite: İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi
- Enstitü: Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü
- Ana Bilim Dalı: İklim Bilimi ve Meteoroloji Mühendisliği Ana Bilim Dalı
- Bilim Dalı: Atmosfer Bilimleri Bilim Dalı
- Sayfa Sayısı: 113
Özet
Bu tez çalışmasında, 20 Ekim 2014 – 26 Haziran 2015 tarihleri arasında Atatürk Toprak Su ve Tarımsal Meteoroloji Araştırma Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü'nün (ATSTM) deneme alanında yetiştirilen kışlık buğdayın gelişme döneminde yüzey ile atmosfer arasındaki enerji değişimi Bowen Oranı Enerji Dengesi (BREB) yöntemi kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Çalışmanın temel amacı bitkinin gelişme döneminde net radyasyon, toprak ısı akısı, hissedilir ve buharlaşma gizli ısı akısına ait enerji bileşenlerini ölçmek ve belirlemek, fenolojik dönemleri dikkate alınarak değişimlerini incelemek, elde edilen bu değerlerle birlikte gerçek evapotranspirasyonun zamansal değişimini analiz etmektir. Bowen Oranı Enerji Dengesi yöntemi aynı zamanda bitki gelişme döneminde ki kuraklık durumunun analizinde de kullanılmıştır. Çalışmada öncelikle mikrometeorolojik veriler değerlendirilmiş olup; sıcaklık ve nem gradyanları ile net radyasyon (Rn) ve toprak ısı akısı (G) ölçümleri doğrultusunda BREB metodu kullanılarak buharlaşma (LE) ve hissedilir ısı akısı (H) hesaplamaları yapılmıştır. BREB yönteminin uygulanabilirliğini artırmak amacıyla veri kontrol süreçleri uygulanmış, sensör ölçüm hataları ve düşük gradyan koşulları gibi sorunlar analiz edilerek filtreleme yöntemleri uygulanmıştır. Özellikle güneş doğmasına ve batmasına yakın saatlerde meydana gelen sıcaklık gradyanı düşüklüğü ve bağıl nem artışı gibi durumların, enerji dengesi hesaplamalarında sapmalara neden olabileceği BREB Metodunun uygulanması sonucunda belirlenmiştir. Bu nedenle sadece güvenilir veriler kullanılmış (%40 veri dışlanmıştır) ve böylece enerji bileşenlerinin daha doğru temsil edilmesi sağlanmıştır. BREB Metodu ile elde edilen LE ortalaması 132,48 W/m², H ortalaması ise 82,40 W/m² olarak hesaplanmıştır. Sonuçlar, enerji bileşenlerinin zamansal dağılımının bitki gelişim evreleriyle uyumlu olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Tez kapsamında yapılan analizler sonucunda, BREB Metodu ile hesaplanan LE'nin özellikle başaklanma ve çiçeklenme dönemlerinde maksimum değerlere ulaştığı belirlenmiştir. H değerleri, sapa kalkma ve olgunlaşma dönemlerinde daha baskın olmuştur. Bu durum yere yakın seviyedeki sıcaklıktaki artışla ve topraktaki düşük nem içeriği ile ilişkilidir. Aynı zamanda FAO-56 Penman-Monteith yöntemi kullanılarak referans evapotranspirasyon (ETo) hesaplanmış, her iki yöntem arasında karşılaştırmalı analiz gerçekleştirilmiştir. Filtreleme kurallarına uygun şekilde seçilen veriler üzerinden yapılan değerlendirmeler sonucunda, BREB yöntemiyle hesaplanan toplam evapotranspirasyon 501 mm, ortalama 2,04 mm iken; FAO-56 PM yöntemiyle elde edilen toplam gerçek evapotranspirasyon 450 mm, ortalama değeri ise 1,83 mmdir. FAO-56 Penman – Monteith'den elde edilen ETc ve BREB yönteminden elde edilen ET değerleri birbiriyle uyumlu olduğu, her iki yönteminde evapotranspirasyon hesaplamalarında iyi sonuçlar verdiği gözlenmiştir. Çalışmanın sonucunda, elde edilen enerji dengesi bileşenlerinin tarımsal üretimi doğrudan etkilediği, yapılan hesaplamaların ne kadar hassas olması gerektiği ve bitkinin gelişimi, devamlılığı ve sulama yöntemlerinin uygulanabilirliği için evapotranspirasyon hesaplamalarının oldukça önemli olduğu vurgulanmıştır.
Özet (Çeviri)
With the increasing global population today, the importance of water resources is more evident than ever. Water is not only a part of daily life, but also an indispensable element for agriculture, industry, and natural ecosystems. As a consequence of climate change, the pattern of precipitation has become increasingly irregular. This results in drought in some regions and excessive rainfall in others, emphasizing the necessity for more careful and planned use of water especially in semi-arid and arid regions. In water-dependent agricultural sectors, every drop and its timing of use is critically important. Evapotranspiration (ET), which plays a crucial role in the water cycle, refers to water loss through evaporation from soil and transpiration from plants. ET is especially significant in irrigation planning and the efficient management of water resources. However, since evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously, direct measurement of ET is quite difficult. Therefore, it is necessary to rely on scientifically accepted and reliable calculation methods. One of the most widely used methods worldwide is the FAO-56 Penman – Monteith (PM) method, which estimates reference evapotranspiration (ETo) using meteorological data such as temperature, humidity, wind speed, and energy balance components, based on a reference crop surface like short grass. Although ETo does not fully reflect actual field conditions, it is considered a benchmark for determining crop water requirements. One reason for this is that factors such as soil structure, vegetation, and climate variability in real field conditions can cause deviations from the ETo value. For this reason, the Bowen Ratio Energy Balance (BREB) method is considered one of the more suitable approaches for real-world applications. This method relies on field measurements such as temperature, humidity, net radiation (Rn), and soil heat flux (G). Using the differences in temperature and relative humidity at two different heights, it first calculates the Bowen ratio (β), and then determines the latent heat flux (LE) and sensible heat flux (H). The calculated latent heat flux is directly related to evapotranspiration, allowing the actual ET value on-site to be estimated. While the BREB method is highly practical and cost-effective, some critical points must be considered. Calculations made when temperature and humidity differences are very low may be unreliable. Sensor errors, atmospheric instability, and physically meaningless data must be excluded from the analysis, and only accurate and valid measurements should be used. Although the FAO-56 PM method is a reliable and commonly used tool for estimating reference evapotranspiration, the BREB method offers an effective alternative for calculating actual ET under field conditions. Evaluating both methods together is an effective strategy to ensure the efficient use of water in agricultural production, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Understanding the energy exchange between the surface and the atmosphere is highly important in agricultural meteorology, especially in semi-arid regions where water is limited. This study was conducted during a wheat trial at the Atatürk Soil, Water, and Agricultural Meteorology Research Institute between October 20, 2014, and June 26, 2015. For the Kırklareli province, the prevailing wind direction between 2014 and 2015 was northeast and east-northeast. In order to evaluate the actual water consumption in the field, reference evapotranspiration was calculated using both the FAO-56 Penman-Monteith (PM) and BREB methods, and their daily and monthly variations were comparatively assessed. Through the BREB system established in the field, micrometeorological data such as air temperature and relative humidity at 1 m and 2 m heights, wind speed at 2 m, precipitation amount, soil moisture content at various depths, global and net radiation, and soil heat flux were collected. Variables such as temperature, humidity, radiation, soil heat flux, soil moisture content, and wind speed were analyzed in detail. Average temperatures were 10.33 °C at 1 m and 10.38 °C at 2 m. The highest recorded temperature was 37.44 °C, and the lowest was -11.68 °C. Average relative humidity was 83.69% at 1 m and 81.05% at 2 m, peaking at 100% on some days and dropping as low as 21%. The average global radiation was 137.84 W/m², with a maximum of 1297 W/m² and a minimum of 0 W/m². Average net radiation was 52.58 W/m², with a maximum of 706.4 W/m² and a minimum of -177.1 W/m². The average soil heat flux was -2.16 W/m², with values ranging from -31.615 W/m² to 48.135 W/m². Soil moisture content averages were 0.194 at 1 m, 0.267 at 2 m, and 0.310 at 3 m, with the highest values observed in winter and the lowest in summer. Average wind speed at 2 m was 2.12 m/s, peaking at 13.37 m/s and reaching 0 m/s on some days. Throughout the 2014–2015 growing season, plant growth was regularly monitored through measurements of fresh and dry biomass, leaf area index (LAI), and plant height. Initially low, fresh weight and yield values increased rapidly until February, with the most significant increases in April and May. On May 11, fresh biomass peaked at 67488 kg/ha, and dry yield reached 53044 kg/ha. On the same date, both above - and below - ground dry biomasses also reached their maximum values. Plant height reached 107.83 cm and LAI reached 4.68, indicating concentrated growth in spring. In the BREB calculations, the actual vapor pressure difference was derived using saturated vapor pressure values calculated from temperature and humidity at 1 and 2 m heights. Using this, latent and sensible heat fluxes were computed. A detailed filtering process was implemented to ensure data quality. Data with vapor pressure gradients |Δeₐ| < 0.0005 kPa and temperature gradients |ΔT| < 0.01 °C were excluded due to sensor errors or physical invalidity, as well as Bowen ratio values deemed physically unreasonable based on a predefined epsilon threshold. After filtering the BREB data, the average actual vapor pressure difference was 0.065 kPa while the average temperature difference was 0.504 °C. The average Bowen Ratio was 0.635, ranging from 0.006 to 8.60. The average latent heat flux was 132.48 W/m² and average sensible heat flux was 82.40 W/m². Net radiation averaged 220.77 W/m² and soil heat flux averaged 5.90 W/m². The linear regression between available energy and the sum of latent and sensible heat fluxes resulted in R² = 1, indicating that the energy balance at the surface (Rn-G=LE+H) was successfully achieved. In this thesis, changes in variables such as vapor pressure deficit (Δe), temperature difference (ΔT), Bowen Ratio, latent heat (LE), sensible heat (H), net radiation (Rn), and soil heat flux (G) during wheat's phenological stages- from sowing to harvest -were analyzed. During the sowing to emergence and third leaf stages, LE and the Bowen Ratio were low, indicating limited evaporation. In the tillering to stem elongation stage, both LE and H increased, with the Bowen Ratio reaching 0.635, showing the increasing significance of atmospheric heat transfer. During heading and flowering, the Bowen Ratio rose to 0.843, suggesting dominance of sensible heat flux. In the maturation and harvest stages, it peaked at 1.515, showing most energy went to heating the air. Net radiation and soil heat flux varied between stages, with net radiation peaking mid-season and soil flux becoming positive. Daily ETo was also calculated using the FAO-56 PM method based on daily micrometeorological data. During winter, ETo values ranged between 0-1 mm due to low temperatures and short daylight hours. Starting in spring, increasing temperatures and sunshine caused ETo to rise, reaching 5-6 mm in May–June, significantly increasing crop water demand. The total ETo for the season was calculated as 519 mm, with a daily average of 2.07 mm and a standard deviation of 1.6 mm. For the BREB method, the total was 501 mm, daily average 2.04 mm, and standard deviation 1.28 mm. According to FAO-56 PM, average daily ETo between sowing and emergence was 1.52 mm, maximum reaching 3.79 mm, indicating fluctuating water needs requiring irrigation attention. During emergence to third leaf, the average rose to 1.08 mm, and remained around 0.69 mm through tillering, with higher needs on hot-dry days. From tillering to stem elongation, the average was 1.13 mm and in the stem elongation to heading period it further increased. During heading to flowering, ETo peaked at 4.49 mm, marking a high irrigation demand period. Flowering to maturity had average ETo at 4.23 mm, before slightly dropping in the maturity to harvest stage. These findings indicate that seasonal changes and crop growth stages directly impact evapotranspiration and water needs. Finally, crop evapotranspiration (ETc) was calculated. Total actual evapotranspiration for wheat was 450 mm, with a standard deviation of 1.72 mm/day, maximum 6.46 mm, and minimum 0.14 mm. A comparison of ETc derived from ETo and that obtained via the BREB method showed consistent results. During phenological stages, ETc averaged 0.46 mm during sowing emergence, dropped to 0.22 mm by the third leaf stage, and increased to 0.92 mm by tillering. It reached 3.15 mm in the stem elongation stage, and continued rising to 5 mm during heading.
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